Diplomacy, Class 10th
R.P. Barston, Modern Diplomacy, Longman, London, 1988; G.R. Berrige, Talking to the Enemy: How States Without Diplomatic Relations Communicate, Macmillan, London 1995
Diplomatic function as :
· Post of representation
· Information gathering and exchange
· Negotiation
· Protection of citizens, commercial, and legal interests of sending state in the receiving state
· Promotion of economic, cultural, and scientific relations
· Policy preparation or policy advice
Fred Charles Ikle, How Nations Negotiate (Harper and Row, New York, 1964)
“Negotiation can be defined as an attempt to explore and reconcile conflicting positions in order to reach an acceptable outcome...the purpose of negotiation is the identification of areas of common interest and conflict”
narrowed the definition by separated it from bargaining and communication
· The process of negotiation see as “across the table” means not only the formal but also the informal, such as lobbying, floating a proposal through draft resolution, exchange of proposals and others consultations.
· Negotiation can also carried out “at a distance” through formal and informal diplomatic correspondence.
Keith Hamilton and Richard Langhorne (1995)
Factors that shape the development of diplomacy
•The international order
•The threat, prevalence and changing nature of war
•The evolution of the state
•Advances in science and technology
Fred Charles Ikle, How Nations Negotiate (Harper and Row, New York, 1964)
Classification according to the purpose of negotiation:
• Extension agreement
The purpose is to continue the existing state of affairs. Extension agreements are frequently routine in nature. Ex: tariff agreement, renewal of peacekeeping mandate, renewal of an overseas military base
• Normalization agreement
The purpose is to bring an end of conflict through, for example, cease fire agreement, peace treaty
• Redistribution agreement
followed by changes in status quo and related with, for example, territorial boundaries, voting power in an international institution, budgetary contribution
• Innovative agreement
The parties seek to establish different sets of obligations or relationships by transferring some degree of political and legal power to non state institutions. Ex: the Sino-British Agreement of 1984 on the future of Hongkong provides example for both normalization and innovative agreement
• Side-effects
One or more of the parties may seek objectives not directly related to reaching agreement. These can include putting on the record statements of position, propaganda, gaining information about the negotiating position, strengths and weakness of the other party or undermining the resolve of the opponents.
Influences shaping negotiation
• The negotiating environment or setting
Includes : location of talks, bilateral or multilateral talks, the extent of relationship, the amount of domestic support, degree of international tension
• Capabilities of the negotiating parties
Includes : the number and skill of diplomatic personnel, the range of specialist expertise, proximity of negotiators to central power, the capacity to take communication control during conflict
• Contingent, means the internal politics connected with the development and attainment of negotiating position
Includes : government cohesion, concession rate, change of government, border clash
The dynamic of negotiation
Influenced by:
•Focal points
Focal points are like a notch where a compromise might come to a halt, or a barrier over which an initial position cannot be budged. Therefore serve not only to reduce the options negotiators have to work within, but also act as means of evaluating compromise.
•The concession rate
Concession indicated in several ways such as tabling a draft proposal, suggested modifications to an article. Concession influenced by the degree of latitude in a decision maker's instructions, whether parts of an issue remain closed and non negotiable and the extent to which decision makers are operating under time constraints or deadlines.
•The idea of momentum
Loss of momentum in negotiations may occur when the absence of a key negotiator, lack of movement on an issue, talks becoming bogged down in details. For sustaining the momentum, used regular negotiating sessions, the use of contact groups or third parties, setting a deadline
Basic strategies of negotiation
Contending negosiator berusaha mencapai tujuan-tujuannya dengan mempengaruhi pihak lawan. Strategi ini biasa disebut sebagai kompetisi (Thomas, 1976); distributive bargaining (Walton dan McKersie, 1965); pengakuan atas nilai (Lax dan Sebenius, 1986). Didalamnya biasa ditemui taktik-taktik seperti argumen-argumen yang sifatnya persuasif, memperlihatkan komitmen, mengancam untuk melakukan walk out, atau juga melakukan counter terhadap prilaku mengancam pihak lain.
· Problem solving melokalisasi atau memilah-milah semua kemungkinan atau pilihan-pilihan yang dirasa dapat memuaskan semua pihak. Strategi ini terkadang disebut sebagai kolaborasi; integrative bargaining dan penciptaan nilai. Taktik-taktik seperti usaha-usaha bersama, tukar-menukar informasi, pengerucutan isu, brainstorming, penggunaan jasa-jasa pihak ketiga adalah beberapa diantaranya.
· Yielding termasuk didalamnya mengurangi beberapa tujuan yang diinginkan oleh salah satu pihak. Hal ini berbeda dengan keputusan pembuatan konsesi, hal ini lebih kearah psikologis internal. Strategi ini dikenal juga sebagai akomodasi (Thomas, 1997).
Negotiation conducted, when...
· As long as governments find an agreement attractive on balance
· They will want to keep their own part of the bargain if that is the condition for the other parties fulfillment of their promises
· pemerintah bersangkutan memiliki kepentingan tertentu untuk mempertahankan perjanjian tersebut sebagai sesuatu yang prinsip, diluar dari keuntungan yang didapat dari perjanjian tersebut – maintain the good will
· Where a breach of an agreement necessitates a clear cut action requiring complicated decisions
Stages on negotiation
- Pre negotiation
- Negotiation itself
- Post negotiation
Pre Negotiation
•Planning
- fact finding, collecting data
- goal setting
- alternatives
- agenda or program
- formulating strategy (s)
Negotiation itself
- Opening
- Bargaining
- agreement
Post negotiation
- Result Implementation
- Communicate the result internally and externally
Desra Percaya, The Role of the Spokesperson of the DFA : How to be an Effective Spokesperson and How to Deal with the Media, 2007
Be a good spokesperson, so you must be :
- Research relevant documents prior to making a statement
- Aware of the official policy line
- Aware that a normative position in a given circumstance might not be the same upon another occasion
How to say what should be said
- Need to create a context prior to making a statement
- with a context we able to persuade public see statement through our perspective not journalist's
- Construct a statement itself based on the context that has been created
Teknik dalam interview :
- Memasuki ruangan interview dengan percaya diri
- Menggunakan jeda antar kalimat dengan benar (time of silence)
- Lakukan kontak mata
- Lakukan gestures untuk membantu penjelasan anda
- Penekanan suara diperlukan untuk lebih memperjelas maksud anda
- Pergunakan bahasa yang jelas dan lugas
- Tekan perasaan khawatir
- Mengembangkan kapasitas bahasa anda
- Gunakan bahasa percakapan yang sederhana
- Use the power of command phrase
- Pastikan anda mengetahui dan memahami tiap kata yang anda ucapkan
- Beri penjelasan tiap singkatan yang anda gunakan
- Pastikan bahwa kata-kata yang anda gunakan merefleksikan emosi yang tepat
- Beberapa bahasa memiliki komparasi gender, jadi berhati-hatilah ketika menggunakannya
Dealing with conflict
- If conflict exists, try to develop creative alternatives. If you are in a difficult situation, don’t say anything. Take time out. Remember, you will not give anything away if you don’t say anything.
- Point out the advantages of your proposal instead of the problems of your opponent's position.
- Under no circumstances should you try to cause your opponent to lose face.
- Do not confuse an impasse with a deadlock. True deadlocks are very rare. Handle an impasse with the `set aside gambit`. Let set it aside for a moment and talk about some of other issues now.
- Be aware of the difference between an impasse, a stalemate and a deadlock. In a stalemate both sides still want to find a solution but neither side can see a way to move forward. One effective response to a stalemate is by altering, one of the elements. One way to resolve a deadlock is by bringing in a neutral third party.
Tactics to break deadlock
- Change the members of your own delegation
- Call in a new negotiators
- Suggest the presence of your superior and your opponent's supervisor
- Introduce new package. Alter terms and conditions.
- Break into small groups
- Propose a break to facilitate consultation or to get new instruction
- Come with any creative solutions
- Bring in a neutral third party
Negotiating through agents
•Reason for using agent :
- The agent have some expertise in the subject
- The agent has more negotiating expertise
- You are too emotionally involved in the issue to negotiate effectively
•Disadvantages using agent :
- Adding an agent to delegation makes the mix more complex
- Agents may not do exactly what you want them to do
- Adding an agent increases the cost of negotiation
- Communication can be more complicated cz information passes through an additional filter, increasing potential distorted message
- Agents sometimes make the deal more difficult
- The client and the agent may simply have different aims
Classification of subjects handled in international negotiations
| Subject | Illustration |
| Political | Communiqués; draft resolutions; extraditions; cultural agreement; boundary changes; establishment of diplomatic relations; mediation; improvement or normalization of relations |
| Development | Loan; bilateral aid; project finance; international capital market; capital transfer; debt rescheduling |
| Contractual | Offshore exploration rights; sale or purchase of oil; hiring of foreign personnel |
| Economic | Trade agreement; balance of payments standby facility; tariff; anti dumping; textile quota agreement; trade redistribution negotiation; sanctions |
| Security | Transit; over flight; establishment of border commission; arms purchase; bilateral security pack; joint development of weapons; mandate of peacekeeping force; base agreement; arms control |
| Regulatory | Convention against the use of mercenaries; law of the sea; flags of convenience; environmental; WTO; shipping; health; narcotics |
| Administrative | Acquisition of land or buildings for embassy; opening trade mission; visa abolition; consular access; headquarters agreement |
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